Which Abiotic Sphere Is Where Most Plants And Animals Live?

Genus of flowering plants in the celery family Apiaceae

Conium
Conium maculatum
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Asterids
Order:	Apiales
Family:	Apiaceae
Subfamily:	Apioideae
Genus:	Conium 50.
Species
See text.

Conium ( or ) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apiaceae.^[ane] As of December 2020^[update], Plants of the World Online accepts 6 species.^[2]

All species of the genus are poisonous to humans. C. maculatum, also known as hemlock, is infamous for beingness highly poisonous. Hemlock is native to temperate regions of Europe, N Africa and Western Asia. The species C. chaerophylloides, C. fontanum, and C. sphaerocarpum are all native to southern Africa.

Description [edit]

Plants of the genus Conium are eudicots, flowering plants distinguished by their two cotyledons (embryonic leaves) and tricoplate (three-pored) pollen. They are typically biennial, forming basal rosettes in the first year of growth, and sprouting a rigid, hollow flower stalk in the second. Germination occurs betwixt spring and autumn. Occasionally, plants which germinate in early on spring are annual instead of biennial.^[3] These plants grow best in wet, poorly drained areas with nutrient rich soil. They grow well in nitrogen rich soil, and are able to tolerate high levels of heavy metals, such as arsenic, cadmium, and lead. Conium plants are diploid, with a chromosome number of 2n = 22 (haploid number eleven). They grow from ane to three meters tall, varying between species. They produce hermaphroditic flowers, which are typically insect pollinated or self-fertilized.^[four]

Stems [edit]

Conium plants are herbaceous, growing non-woody, hollow, and hairless stems. Mostly, the stem is striated and light green; all the same, the coloring varies past species and variety. Some express purple blotching throughout, some have purple blotching localized nigh the base of operations, and others have no markings at all.

Leaves [edit]

The alternate leaves are pinnately compound and finely divided, with the exact pinnation patterns varying between species and leaf blazon. For example, stem leaves of C. maculatum plants are typically two-4 pinnate, only basal leaves are 1-3 pinnate. The leaves and petioles are light green. Like to the stem coloring, some species and varieties limited purple blotching on the leaves and petioles.^[5]

Flowers [edit]

Terminal inflorescences are made up of many minor flowers, colored white, yellow, or green depending on the species. The flowers are grouped together in umbrella shaped umbels. Plants in the genus Conium have compound umbels, with multiple dome shaped clusters branching out from a cardinal betoken. Flowers are around two mm across, and the umbrella shaped umbels range from 1–8 cm in diameter.^[three]

Fruits [edit]

The two seeded fruit is one of the most pregnant distinguishing factors between species. They are relatively circular, slightly flattened, and dark light-green or brown. Depending on the species, they range from two.5 to iv mm long. Some species have distinctive calorie-free brown ribs, some take ribs that are noticeably crenulate (scalloped edges), and others bear witness relatively unpronounced rib patterns.^[6]

Seeds [edit]

Each plant typically produces between 1,700 and 39,000 seeds, and forty-85% will germinate in suitable weather condition. Withal, seeds volition remain viable for 3 to half dozen years after dispersal. Producing a large number of seeds, and growing in a diversity of locations, these plants tin be considered invasive in some cases.^[3]

Chemic composition [edit]

Poisonous alkaloid compounds are nowadays in all tissues of Conium plants. As a flower develops into a fruit and matures, the alkaloids nowadays transform from γ-coniceine, to coniine, and finally to North-methylconiine.^[4] When ingested, these compounds interrupt the central nervous system, paralyzing respiratory muscles, and finally resulting in death through respiratory failure.^[7]

Species differentiation from other plants [edit]

Members of the genus Conium tin be easily confused with edible plants of the family Apiaceae.^[8] Conium plants have leaves similar to parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and roots similar to parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). However, a few characteristics can exist used to distinguish the poisonous Conium plants from other harmless Apiaceae plants.^[4] For example, Conium leaves and stems release a foul odor when crushed. Additionally, the species C. maculatum stands out with its regal blotching design.^[9]

Taxonomy [edit]

The genus name "Conium" references the Greek koneios discussion for 'spin' or 'whirl', alluding to the dizzying furnishings of the plant'due south toxicant after ingestion.^[6] In the vernacular, "hemlock" near commonly refers to the species C. maculatum, but it likewise refers to Cicuta species (h2o hemlock), where both species are similar in physical features, and both are highly toxic.

The genus Conium was erected by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.^[ii] Several botanists, such as J.F.One thousand. Cannon, G.H. Leute, and J.H. Ross, have historically made the argument that southern African species of Conium has few pregnant distinctions. Some even merits that the genus has no independent species at all. They fence that the populations in southern Africa "may be the result of the run a risk introduction of a few individuals which represented genetically a very limited range of the total variability of the species." Some believe that each species of Conium is synonymous to C. maculatum. Others believe that there are two to 3 distinct southern African species of Conium.^[10]

History [edit]

Conium maculatum, also known equally poison hemlock, was get-go described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 publication, Species Plantarum. It was the get-go described species inside the genus. "Maculatum" means spotted, referencing the purple blotches characteristic of this species.^[three]

Conium chaerophylloides was described by Danish plant collector Christian Friedrich Ecklon (1795-1868) and German botanist Karl Ludwig Philipp Zeyher. In 1828, they came together in South Africa, forming a partnership. For the adjacent decade, they built their drove, describing most 2000 genera and species.^[11]

Both C. fontanum and C. sphaerocarpum were described by South African botanist Olive Mary Hilliard and English botanist Brian Laurence Burtt. Together, they published their classifications in the South African Journal of Phytology in 1985.^[12]

Species [edit]

As of December 2020^[update], Plants of the World Online accepts 6 species:^[2]

• Conium chaerophylloides (Thunb.) Eckl. & Zeyh.
• Conium divaricatum Boiss. & Orph.
• Conium fontanum Hilliard & B.L.Burtt
• Conium hilliburttorum Magee & V.R.Clark
• Conium maculatum L.
• Conium sphaerocarpum Hilliard & B.Fifty.Burtt

Conium chaerophylloides [edit]

Conium chaerophylloides, growing two to 3 meters alpine, can be distinguished past its unique yellow-green flowers. Groups of many of these small flowers make up obconical umbels. The outer rays (individual flowers) form an angle with the point of zipper, giving the umbel a cone-like shape, which fans out from the base of the inflorescence. They produce round, iv mm long, nighttime brown or green fruit, with deep, lightly colored ridges.^[six]

Conium fontanum [edit]

Conium fontanum expresses a similar obconical umbel organisation, just produces slightly larger fruit, and develops the white flowers feature of the other species in the Conium genus. The fruit is usually larger than 4 mm long, with ridges of the same dark green or chocolate-brown color as the residual of the ovary.^[half-dozen] These plants grow ane to 3 meters tall, depending on the variety.^[5]

Conium hilliburttorum [edit]

Conium hilliburttorum has non always been recognized as a distinct species inside the genus. Similar C. sphaerocarpum, these plants have white flowers grouped in hemispherical umbels and minor fruit. Yet, these researchers argue that the fruit and ovary anatomy significantly distinguish them from C. sphaerocarpum. They develop similar sized fruit; all the same, C. hilliburttorum fruit displays prominent ribs, whereas C. sphaerocarpum fruit is relatively smooth. C. hilliburttorum ovaries are covered in tubercules, or small lumpy outgrowths, similar C. chaerophylloides fruit. However, C. chaerophylloides plants have yellowish or green flowers, and they grow much larger fruit and are much taller.^{[half dozen]}

Conium maculatum [edit]

Conium maculatum is distinguished by red or majestic blotching along the hairless dark-green stem. Some varieties of the southern African species express a moderate caste of blotching at the base of the stem, just nearly are merely greenish. It grows white flowers in umbrella-shaped clusters.^[three]

Conium sphaerocarpum [edit]

Conium sphaerocarpum produces similarly colored, but slightly smaller fruit, less than three.5 mm long. The ovary is relatively smoothen, with almost completely flat, inconspicuous ridges. Additionally, the small white flowers are bundled in hemispherical umbels. Each umbel'south outer rays protrude horizontally, forming a semi-sphere shape, with the apartment edge at the base of the umbel, and the dome pointing away from the point of attachment. This species tends to abound shorter than others inside the genus.^[six]

Development [edit]

Conium is a genus inside the family unit Apiaceae. The family Apiaceae originates from Australasia in the Belatedly Cretaceous period. Conium is specifically part of the Apioideae subfamily which split off from the other subfamilies of Apiaceae between 45.nine and 71.2 million years ago in southern Africa.^[13]

Toxin development [edit]

The development of toxicity within Conium plants and inside Apiaceae plants has several theories. Apiaceae plants incorporate secondary compounds which are compounds that are often limited to merely a family, genus, or a species of found that varies amongst those smaller groups and is unlikely to be essential to the 24-hour interval-to-day physiological needs of the plant. These secondary compounds are used to mediate the plants interactions with other organisms, such as the prevention of herbivory.^[14] Gottfried S. Fraenkel in 1959 called the distribution of secondary compounds within Apiaceae and other families reciprocal adaptive evolution.^[15] Ehrlich and Raven in 1964 called Fraenkel'due south process coevolution. They claimed that secondary compounds diversify by emerging as a novel compound that protects a plant from herbivory. Due to this protection from herbivory and mutation or recombination in an insect, the constitute tin can become susceptible to herbivory one time more if an insect evolves the means to detoxify or tolerate the toxin created by the secondary compound. With this new trait, the insect has a new adaptive zone with which it can diversify and the plant has a certain set of adapted herbivores.^[14] This is seen with Conium, where C. maculatum has an adaptive herbivore, Agonopterix alstromeriana.^[iii]

Distribution [edit]

Conium maculatum is native to northern Europe, western Asia, and Due north Africa.^[3] C. chaerophylloides, C. fontanum, and C. sphaerocarpum are all native to southern Africa.^{[16] [17] [18]}

Conium maculatum has been introduced to the Americas, southern Africa, People's republic of china, New Zealand, and Australia.^[3] It was originally brought to the United States from Europe every bit a garden establish.^[19] C. maculatum has been introduced to other parts of the world due to the transportation of grain.^[19] In many areas which C. maculatum has been introduced, it has get an invasive species.^[3]

Environmental [edit]

All species of Conium are poisonous to humans and several types of mammals; even so, some serve as nutrient sources for some insects. In add-on, the invasiveness of Conium species into not-native habitats is documented. Information technology is unknown what the spread of Conium into new environments is primarily driven by.^[3]

Dispersal [edit]

Seeds of the Conium plants fall close to the parent and primarily rely on abiotic and biotic vector transmissions for dispersal. For biotic transmissions, rodents and birds take been documented to spread seeds, with them clinging to the animals' fur. Human introductions of the plants from their native into new habitats (either accidentally through seed contamination or intentional as a garden institute or medicinal herb) is also a proposed cause of the plant being invasive in several regions, but these are not common.^[three]

Ecological relationships [edit]

Equally a weed, Conium plants can spread into grasslands and other areas with depression vegetation and crowd out local grass species.^[20] The plants spread very quickly and are very competitive with native grasses.^[21]

Conium plants use their toxicity as a way to mediate their ecological interactions with other species.^[14] Despite the Conium plants existence poisonous, several invertebrates and some insects have evolved mechanisms for fugitive toxicity of chemicals when feeding on the plants.^[22] One species of moth, Agonopterix alstroemeriana, infests C. maculatum.^[3]

The plants serve as a host for several viruses, bacteria, and insects, including the carrot rust fly, Psila rosae; the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa; carrot thin leafage virus; celery mosaic virus; and alfalfa mosaic virus.^[three] In 2015, a novel Poison Hemlock Virus Y (PHVY) was isolated from foliage samples of C. maculatum with mild mosaic and vein yellowing symptoms, collected from fields in south-east Islamic republic of iran. The virus was shown serologically to exist related to potyviruses. ^[23]

Economic affect [edit]

Conium plants are poisonous to a variety of animals including cows, sheep, goats, swine, rabbits, elk, poultry, and humans. Some of the impacts of the consumption of these plants on animals include muscle spasms, diarrhea, depression, skeletal malformations, and death. In fact, the most important losses from Conium plants is through livestock toxicity. An estimated yearly loss of livestock to these plants in the western US was $340 million.^{[24] [25]}

Although they are mostly found in non-crop fields, Conium plants compete with commercial agricultural plants, including several types of vegetables and grains. Information technology has been institute growing in corn, chickpea, vegetable, and orchard fields. Regions affected include Oceania, the Iberian peninsula, primal Europe, and the United States. Economical losses of crops due to Conium invasion is non equally widespread or severe equally its affecting of animals farms, and at that place is little ingather loss information bachelor from those regions.^[iii]

Uses [edit]

Historically, the leaves and flowers of Conium plant species were prized for their decorative appearance, and they were bred and kept as ornamental decorative plants. Conium plants were also used equally natural barriers and in medicine equally treatments. As noesis that chemicals produced by Conium plants were toxic to humans and mammals became widespread, their usage as decorative plants and as treatments have declined.

Today, species of the Conium genus have no known uses, and they are classified as a weed. However, notably, C. maculatum continues to be used in medicine as an ingredient. In improver, the production of toxic chemicals that have limited their widespread public use has instigated research in the chemicals' potential applications in agriculture.

Pesticides [edit]

Chemicals produced by and isolated from plants of this genus were constitute to take anti-insect and anti-predator properties and accept been studied for apply in agriculture. Coniine was proven to be effective against aphids and blowflies.^[26] In addition, extracts of Conium plants were found to inhibit Fusarium pallidoroseum, a fungal disease causing twig blight in mulberry.^[27] Nevertheless, these findings have non yet been implemented in do.^[iii]

In medicine [edit]

Extracts of Conium plants were used as sedatives and antispasmodics. Because of the plants' toxicities, uses as a medicine were discontinued by the early 20th century.^[iii]

Today, there are no accepted uses for the Conium genus plants as a handling. Despite severe safety concerns and a lack of supporting scientific evidence, C. maculatum has continued to be used as homeopathy or domicile remedy treatment for several medical conditions including anxiety, muscle spasms, bronchitis, whooping coughing, asthma, and arthritis.^{[3] [28] [29]} There is little information on the plant's interactions with other drugs and on treatment doses.^[7]

Other uses [edit]

Conium maculatum was introduced into Northward America equally an ornamental plant, imported into the United states of america and southern Canada.^[vii] Constitute hobbyists continue to cultivate this plant species today.

Equally plants of the Conium species are known to be dangerous to mammals, they are besides used every bit natural fences between tracts of land to block predatory animals such as wolves. Information technology is grown along streams or rivers and nearly fences and pastures.^[7]

Toxicity [edit]

All species of Conium are highly toxic to humans, many mammals, and birds (in larger doses). Virtually all parts of the plant are poisonous to humans, and consumption of whatever role of the plant tin cause poisoning.^{[10] [30]} In most cases, poisoning occurs from a misidentification of the plant every bit an edible species, such as C. maculatum root with wild parsnips or its leaves with parsley.^[thirty]

Effects on humans and animals [edit]

Conium maculatum is especially known to be dangerous to pregnant and chest-feeding females and in children, where poisoning has occurred by consuming pocket-size amounts of C. maculatum.^[seven] This establish species and others in the Conium genus are toxic in larger mammals, including bovine, equestrian, and other domestic animals.^[31] They are also known to cause birth defects in domesticated animals.^[32] Birds do not appear to be affected every bit severely when consuming these seeds of these plants, simply they tin also be poisoned in larger doses.^[32]

Pharmacology [edit]

In hemlock, eight piperidine alkaloids, known to cause potent physiological effects, were isolated. 2 of the eight compounds, g-coniceine and coniine, were measured as having the highest concentration, and they contribute to the plant'south toxicity. Other alkaloids that have been identified in hemlock include methyl coniine, ethyl piperidine and pseudoconhydrine.^[31]

In larger animals, astute toxicity doses for C. maculatum are lower for pigs compared to cattle, and for sheep compared to goats.^[33] Specifically, toxicity doses are 3.3 mg/kg for cattle, fifteen.five mg/kg for horses and 44.0 mg/kg for sheep.^[34]

Treatment [edit]

Gastric lavage is performed on larger animals who accept consumed Conium plants. For animals who have started to show symptoms, support respiration and handling with activated charcoal and a saline cathartic are used. Support respiration and activated charcoal treatment is too given to human patients who take ingested Conium plants.^[30]

Equally a poisonous substance [edit]

Conium maculatum (poison hemlock) is infamous in its use as a poison.^{[35] [36]} A small overdose of extract of the constitute causes paralysis with college toxic doses causing a ceasing of respiratory function followed by death.^[31] Poisonous substance hemlock was historically used in official executions and assassinations.^[37] It was also used to execute prisoners; Socrates was known to have died from a fatal overdose of the poison.^[38]

Tillage [edit]

Historically, Conium species has been grown as ornamental plants. As it has attractive flowers to some found breeders, it was introduced to the United states from Europe as a garden plant.^[30] However, at that place have been documented cases where in that location was an improper tillage of plants, where the species, notably C. maculatum, is mistaken with mutual edible plants such equally parsnip, parsley, wild celery, and anise and is farmed for human consumption accidentally.^[7]

Today, intentional introduction of Conium plants equally a garden plant or live specimen for herbal medicine into new and existing regions is less likely.^[three]

Notes [edit]

¹ Species names take Conium abbreviated as C. followed by the species taxonomy.

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conium

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